Handmade Art
手製の芸術

http://www.bethantonsen.com/

woods
木

Wood is an organic material; in the strict sense wood is produced as secondary xylem in the stems of woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs, etc. In a living tree it conducts water and nutrients to the leaves and other growing tissues, and has a support function, enabling plants to reach large sizes. Wood may also refer to other plant materials and tissues with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fibers. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a construction material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks, and paper. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in some species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the prevailing climate at that time. A tree increases in diameter by the formation, between the old wood and the inner bark, of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. Where there are clear seasons, this can happen in a discrete pattern, leading to what is known as growth rings, as can be seen on the end of a log. If these seasons are annual these growth rings are annual rings. Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent. Within a growth ring it may be possible to see two parts. The part nearest the center of the tree is more open textured and almost invariably lighter in colour than that near the outer portion of the ring. The inner portion is formed early in the season, when growth is comparatively rapid; it is known as early wood or spring wood. The outer portion is the late wood or summer wood, being produced in the summer. In white pines there is not much contrast in the different parts of the ring, and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In hard pines, on the other hand, the late wood is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored early wood. In ring-porous woods each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores of the spring abut on the denser tissue of the fall before. In the diffuse-porous woods, the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the unaided eye. A knot is a particular type of imperfection in a piece of timber, which reduces its strength, but which may be exploited for artistic effect. In a longitudinally-sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" (usually darker) piece of wood around which the roughly parallel fibres (grain) of the rest of the "flows" (parts and rejoins). A knot is actually a portion of a side branch (or a dormant bud) included in the wood of the stem or larger branch. The included portion is irregularly conical in shape (hence the roughly circular cross-section) with the tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud. Within a knot, the fibre direction (grain) is up to 90 degrees different from the fibres of the stem, thus producing local cross grain. During the development of a tree, the lower limbs often die, but may persist for a time, sometimes years. Subsequent layers of growth of the attaching stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb, but are grown around it. Hence, dead branches produce knots which are not attached, and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards. In grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. This firmness is affected by, among other factors, the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow. Knots materially affect cracking (known in the industry as checking) and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and/or tension than where under load along the grain and/or compression. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, direction of fiber, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in the knot, as is often the case, it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots, however, may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects. Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber. Only defects of the most serious character affect the elastic limit of beams. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the quality of the wood fiber than upon defects in the beam. The effect of knots is to reduce the difference between the fiber stress at elastic limit and the modulus of rupture of beams. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain. For purposes for which appearance is more important than strength, such as wall panelling, knots are considered a benefit, as they add visual texture to the wood, giving it a more interesting appearance. The traditional style of playing the Basque xylophon txalaparta involves hitting the right knots to obtain different tones.

木は、有機材料です;木が木質の植物、特にまた、潅木以外の木、その他の茎の第二の木質部として生産されるという厳しい感覚で、生きている木で、それには水と栄養分を葉と他の発達する組織へ導いて、サポート機能があります。そして、植物がかなりのサイズに達するのを可能にします。ウッドは、相当する特性による他の植物材料と組織に、そして、木であるか、木のチップまたは繊維から設計される材料に言及もするかもしれません。主に燃料として、または、家、ツール、武器、家具、包装、美術品と紙を作るための建設資材として、人々は多くの目的のために千年紀の間木を使いました。ウッドは、木の物がいつつくられたかについて、結論を作るために、放射性炭素年代測定法によって、そして、年輪年代学による若干の種で年齢を示されることができます。年輪幅とアイソトープabundancesにおける毎年毎年の変化は、その時普通の気候に手掛かりを与えます。古いウッドと内部のほえ声（全ての茎、生活支店とルーツを包む新しい木質の層の）の間で、木は形成によって直径増加します。明白な季節がある所で、これは別々のパターンで起こることができます。そして、年輪として知られていることに至ります。そして、そのことは丸太の端で見られることができます。これらの季節が年鑑であるならば、これらの年輪は年輪です。季節違いがない所で、年輪は不明瞭であるか不在になりそうです。年輪の中で、2つの部品を見ることは可能かもしれません。木のセンターに最も近い部分は、織って作られて、色でリングの外の部分の近くのそれよりほとんど常に軽くてより開いています。内部の部分は季節に早く作られます。そのとき、成長は比較的急速です;それは、初期の森またはバネウッドとして知られています。外の部分は遅い木または夏の木です。そして、夏に生じられます。ストローブマツにおいて、多くの対照がリングの異なる部分にありません、そして、その結果、木はテクスチャーにおいて非常に均一で、仕事に容易です。ダイオウショウにおいて、他方、遅い木は非常に濃くて、深い色です。そして、非常に明確な対照を柔らかい、麦わら色の初期の森に提出します。春の大きな孔がより濃いものの上で落下の組織に接するので、リング多孔性木において、各季節の成長は常にはっきりしています。広がった多孔性木において、リングの間の境界は、必ずしもそれほど明白でなくて、場合によっては肉眼にほとんど見えないです（完全にならば）。結び目は、それはその強さを減らします材木、の特定の種類の欠陥です、しかし、どちらが芸術的な影響のために利用されるかもしれませんか。縦にのこぎりで切られた厚板で、結び目はまわりの木のざっと円形の「固体の」（通常より暗い）部分として現れます、そしてそれは残りの「流れ」（分けて、再結合します）のざっと平行した繊維（穀物）。結び目は、実は、茎またはより大きな枝の森に含まれる一部の横の枝（または休止中の芽）です。含まれた部分は、枝が芽としてできたとき、植物の形成層が位置した茎直径で、点の先端で、形（それゆえに、ざっと円形の横断面）で、不規則に円錐です。結び目の中で、

Furniture
家具

Furniture is the mass noun for the movable objects which may support the human body (seating furniture and beds), provide storage, or hold objects on horizontal surfaces above the ground. Storage furniture (which often makes use of doors, drawers, and shelves) is used to hold or contain smaller objects such as clothes, tools, books, and household goods. Furniture can be a product of artistic design and is considered a form of decorative art. In addition to furniture's functional role, it can serve a symbolic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture works to create, in conjunction with furnishings such as clocks and lighting, comfortable and convenient interior spaces. Furniture can be made from many materials, including metal, plastic, and wood. Furniture can be made using a variety of woodworking joints which often reflect the local culture. Furniture has been a part of the human experience since the development of non-nomadic cultures. Evidence of furniture survives from the Neolithic Period and later in antiquity in the form of paintings, such as the wall Murals discovered at Pompeii; sculpture, and examples have been excavated in Egypt and found in tombs in Ghiordes, in modern day Turkey. A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae a Neolithic village, located in Orkney, Scotland. The site dates from 3100-2500BC and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone, a readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers and beds to shelves, stone seats and limpet tanks. The stone dressers were regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic Carved Stone Balls also found at the site. Early furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century B.C. Phrygian tumulus, the Midas Mound, in Gordion, Turkey. Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from the 9th-8th-century B.C. Assyrian palace of Nimrud. The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century B.C.. Recovered Ancient Egyptian furniture includes a 3rd millennium B.C. bed discovered in the Tarkhan Tomb, a c.2550 B.C. gilded set from the tomb of Queen Hetepheres, and a c. 1550 B.C. stool from Thebes. Ancient Greek furniture design beginning in the 2nd millennium B.C., including beds and the klismos chair, is preserved not only by extant works, but by images on Greek vases. The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii introduced Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius, to the eighteenth century.

家具は、人体（座席の家具とベッド）をサポートするかもしれないか、保管を提供するかもしれないか、地面より上に横表面で物を持つかもしれない動かせるオブジェクトのための質量名詞です。貯蔵家具（それは、しばしばドア、引き出しと棚を利用します）は、より小さな物（例えば服、ツール、本と家財道具）を持つか、含むのに用いられます。家具は芸術的なデザインの製品でありえて、装飾的な芸術の形と考えられます。家具の機能的な役割に加えて、それは記号的であるか宗教的な目的にかなうことができます。国内の家具は、時計と照明のような家具とともに、快適で近くの内部スペースを作成するために働きます。家具は、金属、プラスチックと木を含む多くの材料から作られることができます。家具は、しばしば地域文化を反映するいろいろな木工ジョイントを使っているようにされることができます。家具は、非遊牧民の文化の発達から人間の経験の部分でした。家具の証拠は、Neolithic Periodから、そして、絵（例えばポンペイで発見される壁Murals）の形の古代後半に生き残ります;彫刻してください、そして、現代の日トルコで、例はエジプトで掘られて、ギョルデスで墓で見つかりました。家具がそうであったユニークな石の範囲はSkara BraeでNeolithic村を掘削しました。そして、オークニー（スコットランド）にありました。サイトは3100-2500BCから始まります、そして、オークニーの中の木の不足のために、Skara Braeの人々は石（簡単に動かされることができて、家庭内で使用のために部材に変わったすぐに利用できる材料）で造ることを強制されました。各々の家は高度な洗練を示して、石の家具の広範囲な各種取り合わせを備えていました。そして、戸棚、ドレッサーとベッドから棚、石の席とカサガイタンクにわたりました。入るときそれが象徴的に各々の家で入口に向かって、したがって、見られる最初のアイテムで、石のドレッサーは最も重要であると考えられていました。そして、おそらく、また、サイトで見つかるいくつかのNeolithic Carved Stone Ballsのような装飾的なアートワークを含む記号的な物を示しました。初期の家具は、紀元前8世紀から掘られました。Gordion（トルコ）のフリギア語塚、ミダスMound。ここで見つかる部分はテーブルを含みます、そして、ちりばめた一人前は立っています。紀元前9〜8世紀からの作品も、生き残っています。Nimrudのアッシリアの宮殿。カーペットを耐えぬいて最も早くて、Pazyryk Carpetがシベリアの極寒の墓で発見されて、第6と紀元前3世紀の間で日付を入れられました。回復された古代エジプトの家具は、Tarkhan Tomb（Hetepheres女王の墓からセットされて金メッキをされるc.2550 B.C.）とcで発見される紀元前3千年のベッドを含みます。テーベからの紀元前1550年のスツール。紀元前2千年（ベッドとクリスモス椅子を含む）に始まっている古代のギリシアの家具設計は、現存している作品によってだけでなく、ギリシアの花瓶のイメージによっても保存されます。Herculaneumとポンペイの1738と1748の発掘物は、ローマの家具（ベスビオの西暦79年の噴火の灰で保存される）を18世紀にもたらしました。

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from wikipedia